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PRE-HISTORY
OF SRI LANKA
The
pre-history of Sri Lanka has its beginnings around 10,000 BC with two
distinct phases, pre-history and proto-history. The first phase could
probably have lasted till about 1000 BC and the second may have ended, in
some part of the island at least with the introduction of metal, three or
four centuries later. The stone making technology of the early cultures,
such as Mesolithic, appears to continue into pre-historic times. The
Neolithic or pottery phase saw the technique of producing stone implements
by abrasion and the solid core drill.
The
archaeological evidence on the pre-history of Sri Lanka, is still too much
a rudimentary form to attempt even bare outlines of the beginnings of
human society in the island. The physical characteristics of dwellers were
predominantly Austroloid with Neandethaloid overtones. The Vedda aboriginal of Sri Lanka physically possesses a close
resemblance to the pre-historic descendants.
The
submergence of these pre-historical dwellers and its physical and cultural
affinities came under pressure with the advent of early colonisers from
India. They were gradually subjected to extinction and the settlers called
Yaksha and Naga emerged; about whom much has been left, with beliefs and
perceptions of the ancient literati.
At this time Sri Lanka is also much connected with the stories of the
Indian epic Ramayana.
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VIJAYA
Mahawamsa, the great chronicle is the
Pali record of the early history
of this land. It was written at Anuradhapura by a Buddhist monk named
Mahanama and its settlers some fourteen hundred years ago. Mahawamsa shows the earliest point of Sri Lankan history as the
arrival of Vijaya with his seven hundred men.
From
the fateful conjunction Vijaya and his men landed at Thambapanni, which is believed to be the district of Chilaw.
From
Vijaya’s arrival in 6th century BC, down to Sri Wickrema
Rajasinghe, 295 kings reigned over the whole or parts of Sri Lanka. Then
after activating the 1815 Kandyan Convention, the Sinhala chiefs signed
over the Kandyan kingdom to George III of Great Britain. The monarchy,
which began twenty-three centuries before, continued till the appointment
of the President of the Republic of Sri Lanka in 1972. This fact has been
accepted internationally.
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ANURADHAPURA
The
next great event after the arrival of Vijaya, is the arrival of Mahinda,
which in turn paved the way for the advent of Buddhism. The Mahawamsa introduces Mahinda Thera as the son of the Great Emperor
Asoka, who few years later accompanied his sister Theri Sangamitta with
the ‘Sri Maha Bodhi’, the
holy Bo tree that gave shelter
to Buddha to attain Nibbana.
Appearing on top of Mihintale on a Poson
Poya Day, when King Devanampiyatissa was hunting, the Arahat Mahinda
preached to the king, the message of Universal Compassion. King
Devanampiyatissa, his Queen and in time their people were converted.
The Bo tree was planted
at Anuradhapura, where it still grows as the oldest tree with a recorded
history in the world. Sangamitta brought over the Buddhist nuns and the
Bhikkuni system.
With
the dawn of the second century BC, adventurers from across the Palk Strait
had begun to settle down in the northern coast. One such intruder called
Elara, became supreme in almost whole of the North and reigned from
Anuradhapura. He was later challenged by the ruler Gemunu, son of King
Kavantissa. Later this independent ruler, Gemunu of the South met in
combat with Elara and the latter was killed. For the first time a single
kingdom for the island arose.
Dutugemunu’s
reign 161-137 BC saw the culmination of Buddhism. Monks were disciplined
in Vinaya and was well versed in
Tripitaka. Dutugemunu
contributed immensely for the religion of Buddhism. With the death of
Dutugemunu, Buddha’s prophecy had come to pass. The Anuradhapura
Kingdom, which was built by Dutugemunu, lasted one thousand and five
hundred years. In the second half of the first century, at Aluvihare, near
Matale, in the region of Valagamba, the Buddha-world, and the Pali
canon was committed to writing.
Despite
the intrusions and clashes of South Indian Chola, Pandyan and Pallava,
there prevailed stability in the continuity of the Anuradhapura
civilisation. Despite strong Mahayanist and Hindu influences the Theravada
retained its integrity. Due to the strong diplomatic relations among the
countries like Rome and China, in first century AD. Fa-Hsien visited Sri
Lanka. And in seventh century, Hisuen T’sang regretted his failure of
his attempt to reach Sri Lanka.
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SIGIRIYA
Sigiriya
is a rock-fort built by fugitive king Kasyapa I (473-91BC), the eldest son
of King Datusena (455-73 BC). He built his palace on the summit of this
enormous 600-ft high rock, as legend says, like another Alakamanda, the celestial abode of Kuvera, the god of wealth. The
King had made a huge ‘couchant lion’ through whose throat one ascents
to the summit. Sigiriya has been named after this monument. It is a
complex of buildings part royal palace with superbly designed ornamental
garden-parts fortified town, which together constitute a magnificent and
unique architectural tour de force. Sigiriya,
today is famous for its twenty-one exquisite frescoes in a rock pocket
some 40 feet above the access pathway depicting Lighting
Princesses attended by Cloud
Maidens. These are the earliest surviving specimens of the pictorial
art of Sri Lanka. The mirror wall of Sigiriya contains interesting
examples of a lively and sensitive folk poetry in verses inscribed on the
wall by visitors to the place in eighth and ninth centuries numbering
approximately 800. The most remarkable aspect of the whole complex, is its
mathematical planning and entire design concept. The layout of the garden
complex extends outward, co-ordinating at the centre of the palace complex
on the summit of the rock. Recently, Sigiriya has been declared as a world
heritage monument.
The
Sri Lankan civilisation was mainly depending on agriculture. To irrigate
these rice fields the early rulers collected water in man-made reservoirs
in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa.
Then,
kings discovered a new method to collect water during both the monsoons.
They chose great rivers flowing from the central hills, throughout both
the monsoons and blocked these rivers by dams to produce irrigation water.
This was a great impact on the development of agriculture, mainly on rice
cultivation.
Mahinda
V was the last king to reign at Anuradhapura. The history of Sri Lanka
illustrates the Chola intrusion; in 1017 AD, the North became a province
of the Chola Empire. In 1017 AD the Cholas were expelled by Vijayababu I
and he continued to remain in Polonnaruwa. The dusk of the Anuradhapura
kingdom did not lead to the downfall of Buddhism within the country.
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POLONNARUWA
Anuradhapura
followed Polonnaruwa as the seat of government at the end of the ninth
century. Anuradhapura experienced a wave of South Indian invasions,
especially by Magha (the Tiger) and Polonnaruwa was selected by the
Sinhala Kings as the best alternative strategic place to encounter the
enemy. It was at Polonnaruwa that the Sinhalese sovereignty was restored
by king Vijayabahu I (1056- 1111 AD), consolidated by King Parakramabahu I
(1153-86 AD) and steered towards the greatness by King Nissankamalla
(1187-96 AD). After King Nissankamalla the South Indian invaders again
plundered the city and the glory of Polonnaruwa perished. The citadel of
Parakramabahu I, the Thuparama quadrangle and oblong Image House, the Vatadage
and Galpota or stone book
being an inscription of Nissankamalla, Lathamadapaya
or the Floral Altar, which is a stone platform with daintily carved
pillars rising in the form of opening lotus buds are of incredible beauty.
Gal Vihare with splendid Buddha
statues takes us back to the memory of the most impresses that have faded.
Polonnaruwa developed its commercial ties with China having Gokanna (Trincomalee) as the prominent commercial port.
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DAMBADENIYA
Dambadeniya
was a seat of Government of the Sinhala Kings, for about 63 years
commencing from 1220 AD. The
shifting of the capital was also a result of a further invasion led by
Chandrabanu of Tambralingam, a pretty kingdom of the Malay Peninsula,
which had established itself as an independent state in the last days of
Sri Vijaya empire in the middle of the 13th century.
Parakramabahu’s (1236-1270 AD) forces defeated Chandrabanu and
restored the sovereignty of the country.
The period of rule form Dambadeniya as the capital was not long
enough to make a considerable impact on art and architecture.
His literary achievements of the scholars of Dambadeniya are
remarkable. King
Parakramabahu II himself was a scholar in his own right who wrote Kavusilumina,
the Crest Gem of the Sinhala poetry, based on the Kusa Jathaka story. Poojawaliya
and Saddharma Ratanavaliya are two other literary works produced during
the Dambadeniya time.
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YAPAHUWA
From
Dambadeniya the capital again shifted to neighbouring Yapahuwa, which is a
picturesque rock fortress, 300 feet high abounded with old rock shelters
where the Buddhist anchorites were said to have been living.
Yapahuwa was first occupied by the Chieftain Subha to defend South
Indian forces penetrating southwards.
Thus the rock was named after Subha; Subhpabbata
in Pali and Yapahuwa in
Sinhala. Yapahuwa was used as
the residence of King Vijayabahu IV [1270-1272 AD] and few of his
successors. A shrine was also built adjacent to the palace to safeguard
the Sacred Tooth Relic. King
Buwanekabahu [1272-1284 AD] of Yapahuwa attempted to establish diplomatic
relations with Egypt by sending an embassy to the court of the Sultan
there. Marco Polo mentions
that a mission from the Chinese Emperor also arrived in Sri Lanka in 1284
AD. Another South Indian
ruler Arya Chakravarthi stormed the citadel of Yapahuwa paving the way to
shift the capital to another site.
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KOTTE
The
citadel of Kotte was the administrative centre of the Sinhala Kings from
fourteenth century. Kotte was
a fortified city, which was built by Chieftain Alagakkonara and named as Jayawardenepura. The establishment of the city closed to Kolom Tota, the port of Colombo was a farsighted decision of his to
convert the country’s economy more towards trade from agriculture.
Kotte, however, glorified, by King Parakramabahu IV (1412-1467AD)
who made immense contribution to the development of Sinhala literature.
Several seats of learning emerged during his regime, including Vijayaba Pirvena of Totagamuwa, Padmavathi
Pirivena of Keragala and Sunethra
Devi Pirivena of Pepiliyana. Scholars
like Totagamuwe Rahula, Vidagama
Maitreya engaged in literary activities in the reign of King
Parakramabahu VI (1411-1466 AD) of Kotte. A Considerable number of
archaeological sites have been discovered and restored in Kotte. Kotte was
renamed as Sri Jayawardenepura when it was declared as the official
capital of Sri Lanka in 1982.
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GAMPOLA
The
Sinhala kings commenced shifting their administrative capital from low
land to central mountains, a region, which never in the past was well
developed or highly populated. This region however proved to be an
excellent refuge for defeated causes and a bridgehead for resistance
movements. For this reason, a kingdom was set up at Gampola, literally
known as Gangasiripura on the river Mahaweli in the fourteenth century. With
the advent of the capital in Gampola a curious system of sub-kings or
co-rulers emerged. When one king was at Gampola his brother ruled at
Dedigama, less than thirty miles away on aerial route. The power of the
kingdom of Gampola further reduced with the rise of influential chief
ministers like Alagakkonara who became more powerful than the king.
Gampola is surrounded by many important Buddhist temples where one could
see more veneration of Mahayana deities and worship of Vedic
and post-Vedic Hindu deities.
This tradition firmly was established as a part of religious practice of
Sri Lankan Buddhism since the period of the kingdom of Gampola. The
centres, of this nature constructed at Alutnuwara
to venerate god Upulwan who
became the national god of the Sihhalese. Similarly, Saman, Vibhisana and
Skanda images were installed at Gadaladeniya
and Lankatilaka as attendants of
the Buddha. The woodcarvings at Embekke
Devalaya can also never be overlooked in any description of the
kingdom of Gampola.
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SITAVAKA
Sitavaka
was selected as the centre of administration by sub-ruler Mayadunne
(1521-1581 AD) aiming at control over the pre-partition of the Kotte
kingdom and a buffer against the emerging Portugese power in Colombo.
Subsequently, Mayadunne’s son Rajasingha I
(1518-1593 AD), who was a strong military ruler became an implacable
enemy of the Portugese with reputation as a great warrior. He succeeded to
the throne in 1581 AD. Between 1587 and 1588 Sitavaka’s power reached at
its zenith. Rajasingha I died in 1593 and the power of Sitavaka declined
beyond recovery. The name Sitavaka is connected with Princess Sita of the
epic Ramayana. The legend also
includes that the name of Sitavaka implies the bend of the river Kelani.
Among the ruins of Sitavaka the site of a royal palace and of subsequent
Portuguese and Dutch forts are of importance. King Rajasingha I became a
renegade to Hinduism from Buddhism and constructed the Hindu temple known
as Berendi Kovila ruins of which
exists even today. It was still under construction at the time of his
death. The outstanding ruins of Berendi
Kovila contain stones beautifully dressed by master craftsmen of the
time.
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COLOMBO
– PORTUGESE ERA
The
name ‘Colombo’ derives from the Sinhala noun Kolom
Tota that means ‘sea port’. The city of Colombo has been the
centre of colonial administration in the island. Since independence in
1948, it became the capital of Ceylon and subsequently of Sri Lanka. The
Portuguese settled at the beginning of sixteenth century succeeded by the
Dutch in seventeenth century and followed by the British in nineteenth
century. The Dutch demolished the Portuguese fortifications and
constructed their own fort, which was also demolished in the last century
by the British in order to expand the area of the city. The central
business district of the city expanded in three stages; firstly the Fort,
secondly, Pettah and thirdly, the New Bazaar. As the population increases
the residents moved to more convenient outskirts. The harbour was the main
port of call for European vessels faring between South Africa and
Australia and as a result, a number of vessels calling over at the harbour,
rapidly increased. Now it is one of the biggest container transhipment
centres in Asia. Colombo is now gradually developing its facilities on par
with other similar modern cities in Asia. It, however, retains its
old-world’s charm of its own. It is a multi ethnic and multi cultural
city awaiting tremendous economic boost in the millennium.
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GALLE –
DUTCH ERA
The
Dutch era commences with the ousting of the Portuguese from Galle in 1640.
After a series of heavy fighting the Dutch were able to gain control over
most parts of the Maritime Provinces of the island. The Dutch
administration being a part of a trading organisation attempted as much as
possible to avoid confrontations and focused its attention to maintain a
good and peaceful relationship with the kingdom of Kandy, in order to make
maximum profit out of trade in Sri Lanka. Their legacy is yet to be traced
physically in the coastal regions and many other facets of daily life and
culture in Sri Lankan society. King Kirti Sri Rajasingha had contributed
much towards the revival of Buddhism and Sinhala culture. As part of their
movement, the Higher Ordination to the Buddhist called Upasampada
was brought from Siam with the help of the Dutch. The result of this
existed until the Dutch left Sri Lanka in 1796.
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KANDY –
BRITISH ERA
Kandy
is the last seat of government of the Sri Lankan kings with less antiquity
than previous capitals such as Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa. Its history
dates back to fourteenth century and contributed to safeguard the
sovereignty of the island, until it was lost in 1815.
The
rivalry in Europe and America of the Western nations had spilled over to
the Indian Ocean. The Netherlands was overrun by the forces of the French
Revolution. Consequently, this lead to the handing over of Ceylon by Dutch
to the British. Likewise, the Portuguese, Dutch and British waged war
against the Kandyan kingdom. In 1815, according to the Kandyan Convention,
the Sinhala chiefs signed over the Kandyan kingdom to George III of Great
Britain.
The
independence was gone with the wind. The British disillusioned the feudal
chiefs. Although the feudal chiefs thought the British would co-operate as
the Nayakkars and the actual power will lie among themselves. The chief
Kappetipola led a revolt in 1818, which was easily crushed by the British.
Puran Appu, Gongalegoda Banda and others led the rebellion of 1848. They
were more easily crushed. Both British and Ceylon was effected by the
seminal era of economic change and reforms, which brought forth a world of
the 20th century. The Colebrook – Cameron reforms (1831-1832)
laid foundations for the eventual emergence of centralised administration
and an independent judiciary.
Kandy
has the reputation of being the home of the Sacred Tooth Relic preserved
in the Dalada Maligawa. The
Tooth relic is the Crest Gem of the Buddhist world. The traditional annual
Esala Perahara or the Grand Pageant is an attraction to thousands of
visitors from all over the world. The palace of the last king, Sri
Wickrama Rajasingha (1798-1815) and the Audience Hall constructed in 1784
with richly carved columns of wood can be considered as the living
examples of the Kandyan craftsmanship. The historic event of the signing
of the Kandyan Convention in 1815 took place in this Audience Hall. The
temple pictorial art. The Lake in the heart of the city creates a
picturesque atmosphere to visitors. The natural forest reserve Udawattakale
is rich with rare species of plants and animals.
Buddhism,
Sinhalese, Hinduism and Islam severely discriminated by the British.
Education was entirely based on English medium and schools were run by
Christian missionaries. Motto of the of the British was ‘Buddhism will
die out in few years time’. The
mighty heroes came to the front, to boost us with the spirit of
independence. Pioneers were
foreigners including Colonel Henry Olcott and Madam Blavatsky, Anagarika
Dharmapala. The scholars,
Ananda Coomaraswamy and Hindu leader Arumuga Navalar, Rich Buddhist
Hevawitharanes, Senanayakes, Wijewardenes, Amarasuriyas, Rajapakses,
Pedrises and the scholar knight Sir D. B. Jayathilake joined the
independence movement. From Sangha, Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala, Migettuwatte Gunananda,
Waskaduwe Subhuthi and Ratmalane Dhammaloka were the founders of the
Buddhist Theosophical Society.
At
once due to the tragic event of series in 1915 Muslim, Sinhalese and Tamil
were reunited to demand for independence.
Followed by the restored unity there born the Ceylon National
Congress. The main founders
were brothers Ramanathan and Arunachalam, Sir James Peiris, Macan Markars,
Caders and Razeek Fareed, the Coreas, Jayawardenes, E. W. Perera and A. E.
Goonesinghe. In 1931
Universal Franchise put Sri Lanka ahead of Britain itself in that regard,
and the experiment of government by executive committees of the
legislature was an earnest of a future full autonomy.
Just after the World War II Mahatma Ghandhi’s Sathyagraha
movement helped to gain independence to India, which had a tremendous
impact to speed all the endeavours to reach our goal; which was regaining
of independence from the British rule in 1948.
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